Ancient Egyptian mummified bodies smell ‘woody,’ ‘spicy’ and ‘sweet’

 

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A selection of the mummified bodies in the exhibition area of the Egyptian museum in Cairo.

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Credit: Emma Paolin

 

Ancient Egyptian mummified bodies smell ‘woody,’ ‘spicy’ and ‘sweet’, finds a new study led by researchers from UCL and the University of Ljubljana, revealing new details about mumification practices.

The research, published in Journal of the American Chemical Society, is the first time that the smells of mummified bodies have been systematically studied combining a mix of instrumental and sensory techniques, including an electronic ‘nose’ and trained, human ‘sniffers.’ Nine ancient Egyptian mummified bodies were studied.

This new data offers clues about the materials used in mummification and how practices and ingredients evolved, as well as reveal details about how museums have subsequently conserved the remains.

It’s hoped that using this kind of chemical analysis can help keep conservators safe, protect ancient artifacts and preserve their olfactory heritage.

Lead author, Professor Matija Strlič (UCL Bartlett School Environment, Energy & Resources and the University of Ljubljana) said: “The smell of mummified bodies has for years attracted significant interest from experts and the general public, but no combined chemical and perceptual scientific study has been conducted until now. This ground-breaking research really helps us better plan conservation and understand the ancient embalming materials. It adds another layer of data to enrich the museum exhibition of mummified bodies.”

Dr Cecilia Bembibre (UCL Bartlett School of Environment, Energy & Resources), added: “Two aspects of this study stand out to me. First, new information was revealed by the smells, highlighting the importance of using our senses to understand the past.

“Secondly, while most of the studies on mummified bodies have taken place in European museums so far, here we worked closely with Egyptian colleagues to ensure their expertise and perceptual experience were represented, and we jointly developed an ethical and respectful approach to studying the mummified bodies.”

Odours are chemical molecules suspended in air that have been given off by a substance. The researchers used a gas chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer to measure and quantify chemicals emitted by nine ancient Egyptian mummified bodies on display and in storage in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. In addition, a panel of trained human ‘sniffers’ described the smells in terms of quality, intensity, and pleasantness.

By combining these methods, the researchers were able to identify whether a smell chemical was emitted by the archaeological item, from conservation products or pesticides that may have been added later, or from the item’s natural deterioration over the years because of moulds, bacteria and other microorganisms. The research demonstrated the effectiveness of odour as a non-invasive and non-destructive method to chemically categorise and analyse ancient remains.

In addition to gaining a deeper insight into the conservation and material history of ancient mummified bodies, the research will enable museums to engage audiences not just visually, but using their noses as well by creating ‘smellscapes.’ In the future, a contemporary reconstruction of the smell of ancient mummified bodies will be produced by the research team, which will enable audiences to experience this important aspect of ancient Egyptian heritage, and approach practices of embalming and conservation in an engaging, olfactory way.

Co-author, Professor Ali Abdelhalim, director of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, said: “To the ancient Egyptians, mummification was an important mortuary practice aimed at preserving the body and soul for the afterlife through a detailed ritual of embalming of the deceased using oils, waxes and balms. The practice evolved over time, and identifying different techniques and materials used offers insights into the era, location and socioeconomic status of the individual being mummified.”

Smell was a key consideration for the ancient Egyptians during the mummification process, as pleasant odours were associated with the bodies of deities and their purity, while foul odours were considered indications of a body’s corruption and decay. Even today, about 5,000 years later, conservators often describe the aroma of these mummified bodies as ‘pleasant,’ as it is the product of coniferous resins and oils (such as pine, cedar, and juniper), gum resins (like myrrh and frankincense), and waxes.

The research was conducted in collaboration between conservators and curators at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and researchers from Slovenia, Poland and the UK.

 

Evidence of cannibalism 18,000 years ago

 

Researchers analyse traces of manipulation of human remains from Maszycka Cave

Peer-Reviewed Publication

University of Göttingen

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The 18,000-year-old discoveries from the Maszycka Cave include decorated hunting tools made of bone and antler.

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Credit: Darek Bobak

An international research team including the University of Göttingen has gained new insights into the burial rituals of Late Ice Age societies in Central Europe. Signs of human remains from the Maszycka Cave in southern Poland being manipulated indicate systematic dissection of the deceased, as well as cannibalism. The research was published in Scientific Reports.

 

The Maszycka Cave in Poland is a significant excavation site for the late Upper Palaeolithic times. More than 100 years ago, researchers discovered human bones there among stone and bone tools alongside the remains of hunted Ice Age animals. These discoveries were associated with a late Ice Age society in France, known as the Magdalenian, that existed between 20,000 and 14,500 years ago. Excavations in the 1960s yielded more human remains, so that a total of 63 bones from ten individuals dating back 18,000 years were available for examination. This is one of the most important collections of human remains from the late Upper Palaeolithic.

 

Using modern methods, the team identified 36 bone fragments, which showed signs that the individuals were dissected immediately after death. Cut marks on skull fragments indicate that the muscle attachments and scalp were removed before the long bones were smashed to get to the bone marrow. First author Francesc Marginedas from the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution explains: “The position and frequency of the cut marks, as well as the targeted smashing of bones, leave no doubt that their intention was to extract nutritious components from the dead.”

 

But how and why did cannibalism happen here? The Magdalenian are known for their impressive art – such as the famous cave paintings at Lascaux. “The wide range of artistic evidence points to favourable living conditions during this period. It therefore seems unlikely that cannibalism was practised out of necessity,” says Professor Thomas Terberger from the Department of Prehistory and Early History at the University of Göttingen. Marginedas adds: “It is possible that this was an example of violent cannibalism. After the last Ice Age, there was population growth, and that may have led to conflicts over resources and territories. And there is evidence of isolated incidences of cannibalism in connection with violent conflict. Furthermore, human remains were found mixed with settlement debris in the Maszycka Cave, which indicates that the dead were not treated with respect.” The results help to improve our understanding of the cultural development and group-dynamics in the Late Ice Age society.

Original publication: Francesc Marginedas et al. New insights of cultural cannibalism amongst Magdalenian groups at Maszycka Cave, Poland. Scientific Reports (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-86093-w

New study unravels the history of the largest pastoral population in Africa

 

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The basic survival strategy of all pastoralist groups in the Sahel is transhumance. This involves moving from areas of scarce water and pasture to more productive areas, driven by the seasonal alternation of dry and rainy seasons. In the picture, a Fulani woman with tent poles and part of her household on a donkey, central Mali.

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Credit: Viktor Černý

Researchers have uncovered the origins and genetic diversity of the Fulani, one of Africa’s largest pastoral populations. The study reveals a complex genetic ancestry with influences from both North and West Africa, shaped by historical migrations that have left a lasting impact on their genetic landscape.

Fulani populations speak languages from the Niger-Congo family and live in scattered locations across the Sahel/Savannah belt. Besides their large distribution from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Chad, the ancestral origins of the Fulani people are unclear. This is mainly because the vast majority of the Fulani have a nomadic lifestyle and use temporary camps or mobile tents, which do not leave traceable archaeological evidence.

“Even though the Fulani are a huge population group of more than 40 million people, they are still largely underrepresented in genomics research. Therefore, this study has important implications for our understanding of the Fulani population's history in particular and human diversity in Africa in general,” says Cesar Fortes-Lima, a population geneticist at Johns Hopkins University and Uppsala University and first author of the study.

The study, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, was conducted in seven African countries from the Sahel belt in collaboration with Fulani communities and local researchers. The researchers collected biological samples and anthropological information from over 460 Fulani participants across 18 locations in Africa.

Genetics shaped by interactions with different local groups

The team found correlations between culture, geography and genetics matching the distribution of Fulani groups.

“Our analysis revealed genetic differences between local Fulani populations following a west-east cline, highlighting their complex genetic history, which was shaped by interactions with different local groups and various demographic events,” says Mame Yoro Diallo, a PhD candidate from Charles University, Prague, who was involved in the study.

The study underscores the importance of the lifestyle of Fulani populations. Their subsistence strategies as nomadic pastoralists have influenced the genetic diversity among local Fulani populations along with their geographic distribution.

Can be traced back to the Green Sahara period

The authors also revealed a genetic component closely associated with all studied Fulani populations, suggesting a shared ancestral component possibly linked to the beginning of African pastoralism during the Green Sahara period, 12,000–5,000 years before the present.

“Comparisons between genetic data of Fulani and ancient individuals identified the presence of a genetic component in all Fulani populations associated with ancient groups from North Africa, providing additional insights into their deep genetic history and ancient contacts, particularly with Moroccan populations such as the Berber,” says Carina Schlebusch, an evolutionary geneticist at Uppsala University and senior author of the study.

Furthermore, Fulani populations have shown genetic contributions from other African groups from western, central and eastern sub-Saharan Africa.

“During the last 500 years, the trans-Saharan trade could also have played a pivotal role in facilitating the development of extensive trade networks for the Fulani, further allowing the spread of pastoralism in Africa in different directions across the Sahel belt and beyond,” says Schlebusch.

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Journal

American Journal of Human Genetics

DOI

10.1016/j.ajhg.2024.12.015 

Missing link in Indo-European languages' history found

 

New insights into our linguistic roots via ancient DNA analysis

Peer-Reviewed Publication

University of Vienna

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Fig. 1: Photo of Remontnoye (3766-3637 calBCE), with a spiral temple ring.

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Credit: Natalia Shishlina (co-author of "The Genetic Origin of the Indo-Europeans")

Where lies the origin of the Indo-European language family? Ron Pinhasi and his team in the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology at the University of Vienna contribute a new piece to this puzzle in collaboration with David Reich's ancient DNA laboratory at Harvard University. They analyzed ancient DNA from 435 individuals from archaeological sites across Eurasia between 6.400–2.000 BCE. They found out that a newly recognized Caucasus-Lower Volga population can be connected to all Indo-European-speaking populations. The new study is published in Nature.

Indo-European languages (IE), which number over 400 and include major groups such as Germanic, Romance, Slavic, Indo-Iranian, and Celtic, are spoken by nearly half the world's population today. Originating from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language, historians and linguists since the 19th century have been investigating its origins and spread as there is still a knowledge gap. 

The new study published in Nature, also involving Tom Higham and Olivia Cheronet from the University of Vienna, analyzes ancient DNA from 435 individuals from archaeological sites across Eurasia between 6400–2000 BCE. Earlier genetic studies had shown that the Yamnaya culture (3.300-2.600 BCE) of the Pontic-Caspian steppes north of the Black and Caspian Seas expanded into both Europe and Central Asia beginning about 3.100 BCE, accounting for the appearance of "steppe ancestry" in human populations across Eurasia 3.100-1.500 BCE. These migrations out of the steppes had the largest effect on European human genomes of any demographic event in the last 5.000 years and are widely regarded as the probable vector for the spread of Indo-European languages. 

The only branch of Indo-European language (IE) that had not exhibited any steppe ancestry previously was Anatolian, including Hittite, probably the oldest branch to split away, uniquely preserving linguistic archaisms that were lost in all other IE branches. Previous studies had not found steppe ancestry among the Hittites because, the new paper argues, the Anatolian languages were descended from a language spoken by a group that had not been adequately described before, an Eneolithic population dated 4.500-3.500 BCE in the steppes between the North Caucasus Mountains and the lower Volga. When the genetics of this newly recognized Caucasus-Lower Volga (CLV) population are used as a source, at least five individuals in Anatolia dated before or during the Hittite era show CLV ancestry.

Newly recognized population with broad influence

The new study shows the Yamnaya population to have derived about 80% of its ancestry from the CLV group, which also provided at least one-tenth of the ancestry of Bronze Age central Anatolians, speakers of Hittite. "The CLV group therefore can be connected to all IE-speaking populations and is the best candidate for the population that spoke Indo-Anatolian, the ancestor of both Hittite and all later IE languages," explains Ron Pinhasi. The results further suggest that the integration of the proto-Indo-Anatolian language, shared by both Anatolian and Indo-European peoples, reached its zenith among the CLV communities between 4.400 BC and 4.000 BC.

"The discovery of the CLV population as the missing link in the Indo-European story marks a turning point in the 200-years-old quest to reconstruct the origins of the Indo-Europeans and the routes by which these people spread across Europe and parts of Asia", concludes Ron Pinhasi.

The early roots of carnival? Research reveals evidence of seasonal celebrations in pre-colonial Brazil

 

Pre-colonial people in Brazil may have gathered in summer months to feast on migratory fish and share alcoholic drinks, a new study suggests

Peer-Reviewed Publication

University of York

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Lead author of the study, Dr Marjolein Admiraal carried out the research while at the Bioarchaeology laboratory (BioArCh) at the University of York

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Credit: Alex Holland, University of York

Pre-colonial people in Brazil may have gathered in summer months to feast on migratory fish and share alcoholic drinks, a new study suggests.

An international team – involving scientists from the University of York, UK; the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain, and the Universidade Federal de Pelotas in Brazil – analysed pottery fragments dating back to between 2300 and 1200 years ago which were discovered around the Patos Lagoon in Brazil.

The shores of the Lagoon are characterised by settled earthen mounds, known as “Cerritos” which were built by pre-colonial ancestors of Pampean Indigenous groups called the Charrua and Minuano.

The researchers tentatively identified some of the earliest evidence of alcoholic drink production in the region, with cutting-edge analysis of the pottery revealing traces of beverages made using vegetables – likely to have been tubers, sweetcorn and palm. Other pottery fragments contained evidence of the processing of fish.

The discovery adds evidence to the researchers’ belief that pre-colonial people may have gathered around the mounds – which held symbolic significance as burials, territorial markers, and monuments – to celebrate and feast on seasonally abundant fish. An earlier study using isotope analysis of ancient human remains unearthed in the area indicated that the inhabitants had diverse diets, suggesting that people may have travelled to the Lagoon from the wider region.

Lead author of the study, Dr Marjolein Admiraal, who carried out the research while at the Bioarchaeology laboratory (BioArCh) at the University of York, suggests seasonal gatherings at the mounds were important cultural events, drawing dispersed communities together to exploit and celebrate the return of migrating fish – such as the Whitemouth croaker – which likely required collective effort to process.

 “We see examples of such practices around the world, often related to seasonal abundance of migratory species. These events provide an excellent opportunity for social activities, such as funerals and marriages, and hold great cultural significance”, she says.

“Our findings – supported by a combination of biomolecular and isotopic approaches in organic residue analysis – provide compelling evidence for the use of fermented beverages in these ancient communities and show that pottery played a crucial role in feasting and social activities.”

Professor Oliver Craig from BioArCh at the University of York said “Through detailed chemical analysis we were able to determine what products were present in the Cerritos pottery vessels but also how people prepared these products, through heating, storage and potentially fermentation. This brings us one step closer to understanding the culinary role of different foodstuffs in past societies”

The discovery sheds new light on the lifeways of these pre-colonial groups, highlighting the multifaceted purposes of the Cerritos and their role in the social and economic life of the mound builders, the researchers say.

Co-author of the research, Rafael Milheira from the Universidade Federal de Pelotas in Brazil said: “The Cerritos are a combination of ritual and domestic places, and their elevated design may have been influenced by the local environment; these places were likely important to the people and raising them above potential erosion by seasonal high waters would have protected them.

“We know that large gatherings and feasts were important cultural events in the past (and today), throughout the world. And we suggest prehistoric people in the area would have invested in pottery production in anticipation of these gatherings which drew people to Patos Lagoon to feast on seasonal aquatic resources.”

André Colonese, from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain, co-author of the research and Principal Investigator of the ERC project TRADITION, highlights: “This study reinforces the power of molecular archaeology in unlocking information from common artefacts, such as pottery sherds, that was previously inaccessible through conventional archaeological methods. Moreover, a key message from the paper is that preserving the Cerritos as unique Pampean cultural heritage is of high priority if we want to learn from past societies how to sustainably live in such a dynamic environment”.

As research continues, these insights into the Cerritos and their cultural significance offer a glimpse into the early traditions and social practices of the Pampean Indigenous groups, enriching our understanding of prehistoric life in southern Brazil.

Feasting on fish. Specialized function of pre-colonial pottery of the Cerritos mound builders of southern Brazil is published in the journal PLOS ONE.