Archaeologists uncover 2,000-year-old street in Jerusalem built by Pontius Pilate

IMAGE: This is a location map, marking excavation sites. view more 

Credit: (drawing: D. Levi, IAA; printed by permission of the Survey of Israel).

An ancient walkway most likely used by pilgrims as they made their way to worship at the Temple Mount has been uncovered in the "City of David" in the Jerusalem Walls National Park.
In a new study published in Tel Aviv: Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University, researchers at the Israel Antiquities Authority detail finding over 100 coins beneath the paving stones that date the street to approximately 31 CE. The finding provides strong evidence that the street was commissioned by Pontius Pilate.
After six years of extensive archaeological excavations, researchers from the Israel Antiquities Authority and Tel Aviv University have uncovered a 220-meter-long section of an ancient street first discovered by British archaeologists in 1894. The walkway ascends from the Pool of Siloam in the south to the Temple Mount.
Both monuments are hugely significant to followers of Judaism and Christianity. The Temple Mount, located within the Old City of Jerusalem, has been venerated as a holy site for thousands of years. At the time of the street's construction, it is where Jesus is said to have cured a man's blindness by sending him to wash in the Siloam Pool.
The excavation revealed over 100 coins trapped beneath paving stones. The latest coins were dated between 17 CE to 31 CE, which provides firm evidence that work began and was completed during the time that Pontius Pilate governed Judea.
"Dating using coins is very exact," says Dr Donald T. Ariel, an archaeologist and coin expert with the Israel Antiquities Authority, and one of the co-authors of the article. "As some coins have the year in which they were minted on them, what that means is that if a coin with the date 30 CE on it is found beneath the street, the street had to be built in the same year or after that coin had been minted, so any time after 30 CE."
"However, our study goes further, because statistically, coins minted some 10 years later are the most common coins in Jerusalem, so not having them beneath the street means the street was built before their appearance, in other words only in the time of Pilate."
The magnificent street?600 meters long and approximately 8 meters wide? was paved with large stone slabs, as was customary throughout the Roman Empire. The researchers estimate that some 10,000 tons of quarried limestone rock was used in its construction, which would have required considerable skill.
The opulent and grand nature of the street coupled with the fact that it links two of the most important spots in Jerusalem ?the Siloam Pool and Temple Mount? is strong evidence that the street acted as a pilgrim's route.
"If this was a simple walkway connecting point A to point B, there would be no need to build such a grand street," says Dr Joe Uziel and Moran Hagbi, archaeologists at the Israel Antiquities Authority, co-authors of the study. "At its minimum it is 8 meters wide. This, coupled with its finely carved stone and ornate 'furnishings' like a stepped podium along the street, all indicate that this was a special street."
"Part of it may have been to appease the residents of Jerusalem, part of it may have been about the way Jerusalem would fit in the Roman world, and part of it may have been to aggrandize his name through major building projects," says author Nahshon Szanton.
The paving stones of the street were found hidden beneath layers of rubble, thought to be from when the Romans captured and destroyed the city in 70 CE. The rubble contained weapons such as arrowheads and sling stones, remains of burnt trees, and collapsed stones from the buildings along its edge.
It is possible that he had the street constructed to reduce tensions with the Jewish population. "We can't know for sure? although all these reasons do find support in the historical documents, and it is likely that it was some combination of the three."

Lifestyle is a threat to gut bacteria: Ötzi proves it, study shows

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Intestinal bacteria illustration (stock image).

Credit: © nobeastsofierce / Adobe Stock

The intestinal microbiome is a delicate ecosystem made up of billions and billions of microorganisms, bacteria in particular, that support our immune system, protect us from viruses and pathogens, and help us absorb nutrients and produce energy.

The industrialization process in Western countries had a huge impact on its content. This was confirmed by a study on the bacteria found in the intestine of Ötzi, the Iceman who, in 1991, emerged from the ice of the Ötztal Alps, where Italy borders with Austria. Scientists of Eurac Research examined samples of the mummy's bacteria, confirming the findings of the researchers of the University of Trento who had analyzed the genome of intestinal microorganisms of over 6500 individuals from all continents.
Previous studies by the University of Trento had demonstrated that there is a connection between the microbiome's bacterial content and the increase, in Western countries, of obesity, autoimmune and gastrointestinal diseases, allergies and other complex conditions. In the study that appeared today in Cell Host & Microbe, researchers from Cibio of the University of Trento and Eurac in Bolzano/Bozen demonstrated that the differences between Western and non-Western or prehistoric microbiome lie in the decrease of some types of bacteria that process complex and vegetal fibers in the intestine.
That may have been caused by the Westernization process. Changes in diet, which is now higher in fat and low in fibers, a sedentary lifestyle in an urban setting, the development of new hygiene habits and the widespread use of antibiotics and other medical products have, with no doubt, made our life safer, but impacted the delicate balance of our microbiome.
About the study
The scientists of Eurac Research in Bolzano/Bozen sequenced the Iceman's DNA and were able to identify his set of bacteria, while the researchers of the University of Trento compared it with the microbiome of contemporary non-Westernized populations (from Tanzania and Ghana in particular), which are not used to processed food and have non-Westernized hygiene practices and lifestyle. Their findings were surprising.
The study focused, in particular, on Prevotella copri, a microbe that, when is found in our intestine, is usually the most represented. P. copri is present in 30% of Western individuals.
"First of all, we found out that P. copri it is not a monotypic species but is composed of four distinct but similar clades," explained Nicola Segata, coordinator of the study with Adrian Tett of Cibio of the University of Trento. "We then noticed that at least three of these four clades are almost always present in non-Westernized populations, but are much less prevalent in Westernized individuals. And when it is so, there usually is only one of the four clades. We postulated that the complex process of Westernization had a considerable impact on the gradual disappearance of this bacterium. Our hypothesis was confirmed by the analysis of ancient samples of DNA that were made available by Frank Maixner of the Institute for Mummy Studies at Eurac Research. The Iceman's guts contained three of the four clades of P. copri. And the four clades were also co-present in fossilized stool samples from Mexico that are more than one thousand years old. We still do not know what are the biomedical consequences of these changes of the microbiome which has evolved considerably in recent decades while the human body it colonizes has remained genetically practically unchanged for centuries,"
"Through these 'ancient' samples," continued Tett, "we were able to study the evolution of these clades and now we know that they genetically delineated with the human species and before the initial human migrations out of the African continent."
The study is the result of close collaboration with the research group of Albert Zink and Frank Maixner at Eurac Research in Bolzano/Bozen. Their team was responsible for the collection and pre-analysis of the Iceman's DNA samples. "The relation between the evolution of the human species and the diversity of intestinal microorganisms, as a field of research, is still rather unexplored, but can yield important results in the future through the analysis of ancient DNA. For this reason, finding more advanced and less invasive techniques to obtain and analyze DNA from human remains is one of the major areas of research at Eurac" concluded the microbiologist of Eurac Research Frank Maixner.

Modern Melanesians harbor beneficial DNA from archaic hominins A

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Modern Melanesians harbor beneficial genetic variants that they inherited from archaic Neanderthal and Denisovan hominins, according to a new study. These genes are not found in many other human populations, the study adds. The results suggest that large structural variants introgressed from our archaic ancestors may have played an important role in the adaptation of early modern human populations and that they may represent an under-appreciated source of the genetic variation that remains to be characterized in our modern genomes. As populations of our ancestors migrated out of Africa and into the vast Eurasian continent, they were required to adapt to the wide range of environments they encountered. They also interbred with the archaic hominin ancestors they encountered. However, the role of genetic exchange between archaic hominin and anatomically modern human populations in adaption and human evolution remains elusive.

Genetic surveys with single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) have suggested their involvement in archaic introgression and adaptation. However, compared to SNVs, copy number variants (CNVs), a larger form of structural variant, are far more likely to be associated with genotype expression and are subject to stronger selective pressure. Despite this, the adaptive role of introgressed CNVs in human evolution and the genetic variation of modern humans remains unexplored.

PingHsun Hsieh performed a genome-wide search for evidence of selective and archaic introgressed CNVs among Melanesian genomes. The Islanders of Melanesia harbor some of the greatest amounts of archaic human ancestry known. Hsieh et al. discovered hominin-shared, stratified CNVs associated with positive selection in the modern Melanesian genomes.

Furthermore, the results revealed evidence for adaptive CNVs introgression at chromosomes 16p11.2 and 8p21.3, which were derived from Denisovans and Neanderthals, respectively. The results tentatively suggest that CNV introgression from ancestral hominins may have allowed modern humans to adapt to new environments by providing a source of beneficial genetic variation.

Line 31 in the Mesha Stele: The ‘House of David’ or Biblical Balak?

After studying new photographs of the Mesha Stele and the squeeze of the stele prepared before the stone was broken, Israel Finkelstein, Nadav Na’aman & Thomas Römer dismiss Lemaire’s proposal to read (‘House of David’) on Line 31. It is now clear that there are three consonants in the name of the monarch mentioned there, and that the first is a beth. They cautiously propose that the name on Line 31 be read as Balak, the king of Moab referred to in the Balaam story in Numbers 22–24.

Study 'cures' oldest case of deafness in human evolution

An international team of researchers including faculty at Binghamton University, State University of New York, has published a new study examining a 430,000-year-old cranium of a human ancestor that was previously described as deaf, representing the oldest case of deafness in human prehistory. "The current finding is significant because we have definitively shown this individual was not deaf. Rather than rely on subjective assessments based on the presence of a pathological condition in the ear canals, we have studied in detail the physiological implications of the pathology and have found it does not affect hearing," said Binghamton University anthropologist Rolf Quam. "This is a classic pathology that has been identified in more recent archaeological skeletons and has long been a source of speculation regarding its effects on the lifeways of past human populations. This is the first time the effects have been studied so precisely."
The study, led by anthropologists and clinicians at the University of Alcalá and HM Hospitals in Spain, focuses on Cranium 4 from the site of the Sima de los Huesos in northern Spain. This is one of the most complete crania known from the Middle Pleistocene time period and is considered to be an early ancestor of the Neandertals. The right and left ear canals in this individual both show the presence of extra bony growths (exostoses, in technical terms) which partially block the ear canal. Similar pathologies have been documented in Neandertals across Europe and the Middle East and have been frequently reported in archaeological skeletons from more recent time periods. Although the precise reason behind the formation of this pathology in living humans is unclear, it has often been associated with repeated exposure to cold water.
The researchers analyzed high resolution computed tomography (CT) scans to create virtual 3D models of the ear structures. Data from measurements taken on the 3D models were then entered into a software program that predicts hearing abilities based on the anatomical measurements of the ear. This model was applied previously to other healthy individuals from the same site, who were shown to have hearing abilities that closely matched those in modern humans. Relying on this methodology, the researchers hoped to document more precisely the degree of hearing loss exhibited by Cranium 4 individual. Surprisingly, despite this pathology in the ear canals, this individual did not suffer any appreciable differences in hearing compared to the healthy individuals from this same site.
"We were very surprised by the results," said coauthor Manuel Rosa of the Universidad de Alcalá "and expected for this individual to have suffered some degree of hearing loss." This represents one of the classic pathological conditions of the human skeleton known to anthropologists for decades, and the academic literature is rife with explanations for why these bony growths appear and what their effects are on the individuals showing them.
"Our study is the first detailed attempt to analyze the clinical implications of this pathology in our fossil human ancestors," said lead researcher Mercedes Conde, "and our results suggest caution in attributing auditory consequences to the presence of these bony growths."
In living humans, hearing loss has clear social consequences since it is associated with delays in language acquisition, increased behavioral problems and psychological stress. Inferring such ephemeral aspects of human social life in ancient fossils is challenging and only rarely possible. The results of this new study suggest that, rather than representing a marginalized individual, the Cranium 4 individual appears to have been fully capable of engaging in the social life and activities of their group.
"This study represents a novel approach to examining a well-known pathological condition, relying on medical imaging technology and virtual 3D models to assess the clinical implications of an ancient disease and to reveal new insights into the lifeways of our ancestors," said Quam.
The researchers have some ear bones (malleus and incus) from Cranium 4's middle ear cavity that they plan to study in the near future.

Discovered: Unknown yellow colors from antiquity

IMAGE: These are paint samples taken from the column capital. Under the green paint layer is a beige layer, interpreted as a ground applied to prepare the stone surface before painting. view more 

Credit: Ole Haupt/SDU

Archaeologists have long known that artefacts from the Antiquity were far more colorful than one would think when looking at the bright white statues and temples, left behind for today.
The statues and buildings only appear white today because the colors have degraded over time; Initially, lots of colors were in use.
This was also true for King Apries I's palace in Ancient Egypt. This palace was situated in the Nile Delta, and from here King Apries ruled from 589 to approx. 568 BC.
Fragments of the palace are today kept at the Glyptoteket Museum in Copenhagen, and recently they have been the focus of a collaboration between archaeologists from Glyptoteket, the British Museum, the University of Pisa and a chemist from the University of Southern Denmark.
- We are interested in learning more about the use of pigments, binders and the techniques associated with using them in the Antuquity. It has an obvious relevance for art historians, but it can also tell us about how different cultures in the Mediterranean and the Near East exchanged materials and knowledge and thus connected, says Cecilie Brøns, classical archaeologist at Glyptoteket.
With this in mind, the archaeologists have worked with professor of archaeometry Kaare Lund Rasmussen from the University of Southern Denmark.
Professor Rasmussen is an expert in conducting advanced chemical analyzes of archaeological objects. Among other things, he has examined the beard of renaissance astronomer Tycho Brahe, Italian monk skeletons, medieval syphilis-infested bones, sacred relics and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
For this project he has taken samples of the palace fragments to learn more about the pigments and binders used.
The project has resulted in two scientific articles, the last one just been published. They can both be found in the journal Heritage Science:
https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-019-0296-4 and https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-018-0170-9
- We have discovered no less than two pigments whose use in Antiquity has hitherto been completely unknown, says Kaare Lund Rasmussen.
These are lead-antimonate yellow and lead-tin yellow. Both are naturally occurring mineral pigments.
- We do not know whether the two pigments were commonly available or rare. Future chemical studies of other antiquity artefacts may shed more light, he says.
Lead-antimonate yellow and lead-tin yellow have so far only been found in paintings dating to the Middle Ages or younger than that. The oldest known use of lead-tin yellow is in European paintings from ca. 1300 AD. The oldest known use of lead-antimonate yellow is from the beginning of the 16th century AD.
Analyzing binders is more difficult than analyzing pigments. Pigments are inorganic and do not deteriorate as easily as most binders which are organic and therefore deteriorate faster.
Nevertheless, Kaare Lund Rasmussen's Italian colleagues from Professor Maria Perla Colombini's research group at the University of Pisa managed to find traces of two binders, namely rubber and animal glue.
The rubber is probably tapped from an acacia tree and served as a solvent for powdered pigment. Rubber was widely used as a binder, and it has also been found on stone columns in the Karnak Temple and murals in Queen Nefertite's tomb.
Animal glue was also commonly available. It was made by boiling animal parts, in particular the hides and bones, in water to a gel-like mass which could be dried and pulverized. When needed, the powder was stirred with warm water and ready to use.
The researchers also found these color pigments:
Calcite (white).
Gypsum (white).
Egyptian Blue (a synthetic pigment, invented in the 3rd millennium BC)
Atacamite (green).
Hematite (red).
Orpiment (golden yellow).

Scientists find early humans moved through Mediterranean earlier than believed

IMAGE: A researcher works at a trench at Stelida (Naxos, Greece). view more 

Credit: Evaggelos Tzoumenekas

An international research team led by scientists from McMaster University has unearthed new evidence in Greece proving that the island of Naxos was inhabited by Neanderthals and earlier humans at least 200,000 years ago, tens of thousands of years earlier than previously believed.
The findings, published today in the journal Science Advances, are based on years of excavations and challenge current thinking about human movement in the region--long thought to have been inaccessible and uninhabitable to anyone but modern humans. The new evidence is leading researchers to reconsider the routes our early ancestors took as they moved out of Africa into Europe and demonstrates their ability to adapt to new environmental challenges.
"Until recently, this part of the world was seen as irrelevant to early human studies but the results force us to completely rethink the history of the Mediterranean islands," says Tristan Carter, an associate professor of anthropology at McMaster University and lead author on the study. He conducted the work with Dimitris Athanasoulis, head of archaeology at the Cycladic Ephorate of Antiquities within the Greek Ministry of Culture.
While Stone Age hunters are known to have been living on mainland Europe for over 1 million years, the Mediterranean islands were previously believed to be settled only 9,000 years ago, by farmers, the idea being that only modern humans - Homo sapiens - were sophisticated enough to build seafaring vessels.
Scholars had believed the Aegean Sea, separating western Anatolia (modern Turkey) from continental Greece, was therefore impassable to the Neanderthals and earlier hominins, with the only obvious route in and out of Europe was across the land bridge of Thrace (southeast Balkans).
The authors of this paper suggest that the Aegean basin was in fact accessible much earlier than believed. At certain times of the Ice Age the sea was much lower exposing a land route between the continents that would have allowed early prehistoric populations to walk to Stelida, and an alternative migration route connecting Europe and Africa. Researchers believe the area would have been attractive to early humans because of its abundance of raw materials ideal for toolmaking and for its fresh water.
At the same time however, "in entering this region the pre-Neanderthal populations would have been faced with a new and challenging environment, with different animals, plants and diseases, all requiring new adaptive strategies," says Carter.
In this paper, the team details evidence of human activity spanning almost 200,000 years at Stelida, a prehistoric quarry on the northwest coast of Naxos. Here early Homo sapiens, Neanderthals and earlier humans used the local stone (chert) to make their tools and hunting weapons, of which the team has unearthed hundreds of thousands.
Reams of scientific data collected at the site add to the ongoing debate about the importance of coastal and marine routes to human movement. While present data suggests that the Aegean could be crossed by foot over 200,000 years ago, the authors also raise the possibility that Neanderthals may also have fashioned crude seafaring boats capable of crossing short distances.
This research is part of the Stelida Naxos Archeological Project, a larger collaboration involving scholars from all over the world. They have been working at the site since 2013.

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For more on the project, please visit: https://www.stelida.org/english