Sweden's Viking Age population appears to have suffered from severe oral and maxillofacial disease, sinus and ear infections, osteoarthritis, and much more. This is shown in a study from the University of Gothenburg in which Viking skulls were examined using modern X-ray techniques.
About a year ago saw the publication of research based on the examination of a large number of teeth from the Viking Age population of Varnhem in the Swedish province of Västergötland. Varnhem is known for its thousands of ancient graves and excavations of well-preserved skeletons.
Now, odontologists at the University of Gothenburg have taken this research further, looking at not only teeth but also entire skulls, by using modern computed tomography, also known as CT scans.
Detailed image analysis
The results presented in British Dental Journal Open suggest that the fifteen individuals whose skulls were examined suffered from a broad range of diseases. The CT scans show pathological bone growths in the cranium and jawbone, revealing infections and other conditions.
Several individuals showed signs of having suffered from sinus or ear infections that left traces in the adjacent bone structures. Signs of osteoarthritis and various dental diseases were also found. All the skulls came from adults who died between 20 and 60 years of age.
The study lead, Carolina Bertilsson, is an assistant researcher at the University of Gothenburg and a dentist within Sweden's Public Dental Service. The study was performed with specialists in dental radiology at the University of Gothenburg and an archaeologist from Västergötlands museum.
Together, they conducted the examinations and analyzed the images. CT scans provide three-dimensional images that enable researchers to study in detail the various types of skeletal damage, layer by layer, in the different parts of the skull.
Greater understanding
"There was much to look at. We found many signs of disease in these individuals. Exactly why we don't know. While we can't study the damage in the soft tissue because it's no longer there, we can see the traces left in the skeletal structures," says Carolina Bertilsson, and continues:
"The results of the study provide greater understanding of these people's health and wellbeing. Everyone knows what it's like to have pain somewhere, you can get quite desperate for help. But back then, they didn't have the medical and dental care we do, or the kind of pain relief – and antibiotics – we now have. If you developed an infection, it could stick around for a long time."
The study is described as a pilot study. One important aspect was to test CT as a method for future and more extensive studies."Very many of today's archaeological methods are invasive, with the need to remove bone or other tissue for analysis. This way, we can keep the remains completely intact yet still extract a great deal of information," says Carolina Bertilsson.
New archaeological evidence suggests that ancient inhabitants of the Philippines and Island Southeast Asia had the advanced plant-working technology needed for sophisticated boat building and open-sea fishing.
The ancient peoples of the Philippines and of Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) may have built sophisticated boats and mastered seafaring tens of thousands of years ago—millennia before Magellan, Zheng He, and even the Polynesians.
In a new paper coming out in the April 2025 issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, Ateneo de Manila University researchers Riczar Fuentes and Alfred Pawlik challenge the widely-held contention that technological progress during the Paleolithic only emerged in Europe and Africa.
They point out that much of ISEA was never connected to mainland Asia, neither by land bridges nor by ice sheets, yet it has yielded evidence of early human habitation. Exactly how these peoples achieved such daring ocean crossings is an enduring mystery, as organic materials like wood and fiber used for boats rarely survive in the archaeological record. But archaeological sites in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Timor-Leste are now providing strong evidence that ancient seafarers had a technological sophistication comparable to much later civilizations.
Microscopic analysis of stone tools excavated at these sites, dating as far back as some 40,000 years ago, showed clear traces of plant processing—particularly the extraction of fibers necessary for making ropes, nets, and bindings essential for boatbuilding and open-sea fishing. Archaeological sites in Mindoro and Timor-Leste also yielded the remains of deep ocean fish such as tuna and sharks as well as fishing implements such as fishing hooks, gorges, and net weights.
“The remains of large predatory pelagic fish in these sites indicate the capacity for advanced seafaring and knowledge of the seasonality and migration routes of those fish species,” the researchers said in their paper. Meanwhile, the discovery of fishing implements “indicates the need for strong and well-crafted cordage for ropes and fishing lines to catch the marine fauna.”
This body of evidence points to the likelihood that these ancient seafarers built sophisticated boats out of organic composite materials held together with plant-based ropes and also used the same rope technology for open-sea fishing. If so, then prehistoric migrations across ISEA were not undertaken by mere passive sea drifters on flimsy bamboo rafts but by highly skilled navigators equipped with the knowledge and technology to travel vast distances and to remote islands over deep waters.
Several years of fieldwork in Ilin Island, Occidental Mindoro, inspired the researchers to think of this topic and to test this hypothesis. Together with naval architects from the University of Cebu, they recently started the First Long-Distance Open-Sea Watercrafts (FLOW) Project, supported by a research grant from the Ateneo de Manila University, with the aim of testing raw materials that were probably used in the past, and to design and test scaled-down seacraft models.
The presence of such advanced maritime technology in prehistoric ISEA highlights the ingenuity of early Philippine peoples and their neighbors, whose boat-building knowledge likely made the region a center for technological innovations tens of thousands of years ago and laid the foundations for the maritime traditions that still thrive in the region today.
The isotope analysis of the Puig Castellar and Ullastret sites point to different mobility patterns in these individuals, who would not have been randomly selected.
The nailed heads ritual did not correspond to the same symbolic expression among the Iberian communities of the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, but rather a practice that differed in each settlement. In some, external individuals were used as symbols of power and intimidation, while other settlements could have given priority to the veneration of members of the local community.
This is the conclusion reached by a study led by the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) which analyses the mobility patterns of these human communities existing in the Iron Age of the last millenium BCE. Researchers studied seven nailed skulls of men found in two sites dating back to this period: the city of Ullastret (found in the same town of the province of Girona) and the settlement of Puig Castellar (Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Barcelona).
The study, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, was coordinated by researchers from the Department of Animal Biology, Plant Biology and Ecology of the UAB and also included the collaboration of researchers from the Museum of Archaeology of Catalonia (MAC), the Museum Torre Balldovina and the universities of Lleida, Bordeaux (France), and Tübingen (Germany).
Severed heads: more than just simple war trophies
Severed heads were a unique funerary practice within the Iberian world and represent an exceptional opportunity to analyse these communities, of which very little archaeological record exists since cremation was the predominant burial ritual. This practice consisted of the public exhibition of the skulls of certain individuals, subjected to a post-mortem treatment. Some of these skulls have been recovered with signs of nailing and in some cases with an iron nail still in place.
“Who were these individuals and for what were their heads used?” Traditionally, archaeologists have debated whether the skulls were war trophies — to intimidate their enemies — or venerated relics of important community members. These hypotheses, however, based on oral and ethnographic sources, have not yet been verified, nor has there been in-depth studies on the relationship between these groups and the land they inhabited. “Our premise in approaching the study was that if they were war trophies they would not come from the sites analysed, while if they were venerated individuals, these would most likely be local”, explains Rubén de la Fuente-Seoane, archaeologist at the UAB and first author of the study.
“Our results reveal that the individuals from Puig Castellar and Ullastret would not have been randomly selected. There would have been a homogeneous trend towards men in these rituals. However, the mobility and localisation patterns suggest a greater diversity, which could also imply social and cultural differences among the individuals of the two communities,” says the UAB researcher.
Isotope analysis reveals differences between the sites
To carry out the study, the research team combined bioarchaeology and the analysis of stable strontium and oxygen isotopes in the dental enamel of seven severed skulls of men recovered from Puig Castellar and Ullastret, together with archaeozoological data and a detailed sampling of sediment and vegetation collected in the vecinity of the sites. The results of the strontium isotopes of the sediment and vegetation allowed researchers to define the reference range of the strontium in the area near each site (bioavailable strontium). This in turn made it possible to discern which individuals coincided or not with this range and, therefore, identify whether they were local or not.
“At Puig Castellar the isotope values of three of the four individuals differ significantly from the local strontium reference, which suggests that they were probably not from the local community. In contrast, Ullastret revealed a mixture of local and non-local origins. This result suggests that the practice of severed heads was applied in a different way at each site, which seems to rule out a homogeneous symbolic expression. But more research is needed to be sure”, says de la Fuente-Seoane.
The fact that in Puig Castellar the skulls were exposed in an area such as the wall makes the researchers opt for the hypothesis that the reason for their exposure was aimed at the demonstration of power and coercion, both for internal repression and towards a group outside the community. In the case of Ullastret, the two local individuals were found in a street, in the middle of the city, which suggests that they were exhibited on a wall or doorway of the adjacent houses. This fact would provide support to the hypothesis suggesting that they could have belonged to important people of this community, venerated or vindicated by its inhabitants. A third Ullastret skull, of possible foreign origin, was found in one of the external walls of the settlement, which could represent a war trophy.
New tools to help understand the Iberian society
The results of the study reveal for the first time direct evidence of human mobility patterns during the Iron Age in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula, and provide new perspectives on the territorialisation contexts of northeastern Iberia.
Previous research on Iberian territorial management suggested differences in how these societies exploited the resources surrounding them. With this study researchers were able to see that the skulls found at Puig Castellar and Ullastret also show different mobility patterns, given that the values of the humans and their relationship with the values of the area are completely different in each site. The faunal samples also reveal a very differentiated resource management, in coherence with the typology of each of the settlements.
“This differentiation reflects a dynamic and complex society with important local and external interactions. Our study is a first approach to this archaeological problem using a method that is revolutionising the way we study mobility in the past. At the same time, it suggests that the selection of individuals for the severed heads ritual was more complex than initially thought”, indicates Rubén de la Fuente-Seoane.
The study underlines the importance of integrating bioarchaeological and isotope data to improve the understanding of social structures and human interactions in the past. “We have established a local strontium reference based on a rigorous protocol, applying in humans a pioneering methodology in Catalonia that, moreover, serves as a first step towards the creation of a Catalan map of bioavailable strontium. This will favour other future studies and the group of archaeologists studying mobility”, concludes the UAB researcher.
Ancient Egyptian mummified bodies smell ‘woody,’ ‘spicy’ and ‘sweet’, finds a new study led by researchers from UCL and the University of Ljubljana, revealing new details about mumification practices.
The research, published in Journal of the American Chemical Society, is the first time that the smells of mummified bodies have been systematically studied combining a mix of instrumental and sensory techniques, including an electronic ‘nose’ and trained, human ‘sniffers.’ Nine ancient Egyptian mummified bodies were studied.
This new data offers clues about the materials used in mummification and how practices and ingredients evolved, as well as reveal details about how museums have subsequently conserved the remains.
It’s hoped that using this kind of chemical analysis can help keep conservators safe, protect ancient artifacts and preserve their olfactory heritage.
Lead author, Professor Matija Strlič (UCL Bartlett School Environment, Energy & Resources and the University of Ljubljana) said: “The smell of mummified bodies has for years attracted significant interest from experts and the general public, but no combined chemical and perceptual scientific study has been conducted until now. This ground-breaking research really helps us better plan conservation and understand the ancient embalming materials. It adds another layer of data to enrich the museum exhibition of mummified bodies.”
Dr Cecilia Bembibre (UCL Bartlett School of Environment, Energy & Resources), added: “Two aspects of this study stand out to me. First, new information was revealed by the smells, highlighting the importance of using our senses to understand the past.
“Secondly, while most of the studies on mummified bodies have taken place in European museums so far, here we worked closely with Egyptian colleagues to ensure their expertise and perceptual experience were represented, and we jointly developed an ethical and respectful approach to studying the mummified bodies.”
Odours are chemical molecules suspended in air that have been given off by a substance. The researchers used a gas chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer to measure and quantify chemicals emitted by nine ancient Egyptian mummified bodies on display and in storage in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. In addition, a panel of trained human ‘sniffers’ described the smells in terms of quality, intensity, and pleasantness.
By combining these methods, the researchers were able to identify whether a smell chemical was emitted by the archaeological item, from conservation products or pesticides that may have been added later, or from the item’s natural deterioration over the years because of moulds, bacteria and other microorganisms. The research demonstrated the effectiveness of odour as a non-invasive and non-destructive method to chemically categorise and analyse ancient remains.
In addition to gaining a deeper insight into the conservation and material history of ancient mummified bodies, the research will enable museums to engage audiences not just visually, but using their noses as well by creating ‘smellscapes.’ In the future, a contemporary reconstruction of the smell of ancient mummified bodies will be produced by the research team, which will enable audiences to experience this important aspect of ancient Egyptian heritage, and approach practices of embalming and conservation in an engaging, olfactory way.
Co-author, Professor Ali Abdelhalim, director of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, said: “To the ancient Egyptians, mummification was an important mortuary practice aimed at preserving the body and soul for the afterlife through a detailed ritual of embalming of the deceased using oils, waxes and balms. The practice evolved over time, and identifying different techniques and materials used offers insights into the era, location and socioeconomic status of the individual being mummified.”
Smell was a key consideration for the ancient Egyptians during the mummification process, as pleasant odours were associated with the bodies of deities and their purity, while foul odours were considered indications of a body’s corruption and decay. Even today, about 5,000 years later, conservators often describe the aroma of these mummified bodies as ‘pleasant,’ as it is the product of coniferous resins and oils (such as pine, cedar, and juniper), gum resins (like myrrh and frankincense), and waxes.
The research was conducted in collaboration between conservators and curators at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and researchers from Slovenia, Poland and the UK.
An international research team including the University of Göttingen has gained new insights into the burial rituals of Late Ice Age societies in Central Europe. Signs of human remains from the Maszycka Cave in southern Poland being manipulated indicate systematic dissection of the deceased, as well as cannibalism. The research was published in Scientific Reports.
The Maszycka Cave in Poland is a significant excavation site for the late Upper Palaeolithic times. More than 100 years ago, researchers discovered human bones there among stone and bone tools alongside the remains of hunted Ice Age animals. These discoveries were associated with a late Ice Age society in France, known as the Magdalenian, that existed between 20,000 and 14,500 years ago. Excavations in the 1960s yielded more human remains, so that a total of 63 bones from ten individuals dating back 18,000 years were available for examination. This is one of the most important collections of human remains from the late Upper Palaeolithic.
Using modern methods, the team identified 36 bone fragments, which showed signs that the individuals were dissected immediately after death. Cut marks on skull fragments indicate that the muscle attachments and scalp were removed before the long bones were smashed to get to the bone marrow. First author Francesc Marginedas from the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution explains: “The position and frequency of the cut marks, as well as the targeted smashing of bones, leave no doubt that their intention was to extract nutritious components from the dead.”
But how and why did cannibalism happen here? The Magdalenian are known for their impressive art – such as the famous cave paintings at Lascaux. “The wide range of artistic evidence points to favourable living conditions during this period. It therefore seems unlikely that cannibalism was practised out of necessity,” says Professor Thomas Terberger from the Department of Prehistory and Early History at the University of Göttingen. Marginedas adds: “It is possible that this was an example of violent cannibalism. After the last Ice Age, there was population growth, and that may have led to conflicts over resources and territories. And there is evidence of isolated incidences of cannibalism in connection with violent conflict. Furthermore, human remains were found mixed with settlement debris in the Maszycka Cave, which indicates that the dead were not treated with respect.” The results help to improve our understanding of the cultural development and group-dynamics in the Late Ice Age society.
Original publication: Francesc Marginedas et al. New insights of cultural cannibalism amongst Magdalenian groups at Maszycka Cave, Poland. Scientific Reports (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-86093-w
