Australian cave discovery shows grass burned for magic, healing, cursing for 25,000 years

 

Perfectly preserved ‘phytolith’ plant crystals reveal that indigenous Australians took grasses into cave for ritual burning since last Ice Age

Peer-Reviewed Publication

Frontiers

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GunaiKurnai Elder Uncle Russell Mullett at the cave entrance of Cloggs Cave

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Credit: Jess Shapiro, courtesy of GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Corporation

The GunaiKurnai, an Australian Aboriginal nation, are the acknowledged traditional custodians of Gippsland and the southern Victorian Alps. Within their territory are caves, known from 19th-century ethnographic reports and oral traditions to have been the setting for magic, healing, and cursing rituals by powerful learned women and men called ‘mulla-mullung’, as well as by other spiritual practitioners. Archaeologists have shown that people have been visiting one of these caves, Cloggs Cave, for such activities over the past 25,000 years.

“Here we show that the Old Ancestors selected whole grasses from the wider landscape and carried them into Cloggs Cave to spread out in thin layers and burn. Over time, sediments covered these burnt layers, preserving each layer on top of another over thousands of years,” said Dr Elle Grono, a postdoctoral researcher at the Australian National University and the corresponding author of a new study published in Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology.

Phytoliths and a standing stone

Grono and colleagues from Australia, France, and New Zealand studied the phytoliths – microscopic silica bodies from plant tissues – recovered from buried deposits in Cloggs Cave. The study was part of archaeological excavations undertaken in 2019 and 2020 that aimed to understand how people gathered plants for use inside the cave in the past. These excavations had been requested by the GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Corporation, with representatives of the GunaiKurnai community taking part in the study design, fieldwork, interpretations, and dissemination of the results.

“Unlike pollen, which is dispersed by wind or insects, phytoliths mostly accumulate at the spot where a plant decays. No plants grow inside the cave due to a lack of light, so the phytoliths must have been carried in by people or by animals such as possums on their fur or through their scats,” explained Grono. “We focused on half-burnt phytoliths from ashy layers, which can only have been brought in by people, as unburnt ones might have arrived through either means.”

The scientists used microscopy to assign taxonomic groups to thousands of phytoliths from two pits, respectively 1.5 m and 2.3 m deep. The top strata of these pits consisted of 73 thin ashy layers laid down by people between approximately 4,400 and 1,600 years ago, as calculated by optically stimulated luminescence and carbon dating via accelerator mass spectrometry. Within those ashy layers, they unexpectedly uncovered a 28-cm-high standing stone, subsequently shown to have been erected in the cave by Old Ancestors for ritual purposes around 2,000 years ago.

Grasses preferred

In total, the authors found 29 different types of phytoliths from a range of plant groups including grasses, herbs, and woody plants. They were mostly well preserved, with even the most delicate silica structures such as hair cells surviving pristine. The most abundant (up to 97%) were from grasses, both from the subfamily Pooideae which prefer temperate or cool climates, and from Panicoideae which mostly grow under warm and humid conditions. Phytoliths from the Chloridoideae family, drought-resistant grasses that grow well in warm, dry arid environments were less common, while those from woody plants and herbs were rare.

The Old Ancestors were very selective as to which types of plants they brought into the cave. They avoided diverse species from the riparian forest and open woodland found in the vicinity of Cloggs Cave before European settlement, and instead targeted grasses that would have been available a short distance away from the cave entrance.

“The phytoliths found at Cloggs Cave were from different parts of grass plants such as stems, leaves, flowers and roots, indicating that whole grasses were brought in, including the inedible parts,” said Grono.

Overall, nearly a fifth – up to 18% – of the phytoliths were burnt or melted. Their presence throughout the dated deposits implied that people had brought plants into the cave and burnt them there over the entire time-span of the past 25,000 years.

Professor Bruno David from Monash University who co-led the excavations with GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Corporation concludes that “their burning is consistent with GunaiKurnai traditional practices of using ash to perform magic and rituals, and also to track the footsteps of anyone coming in, including spirit-Beings. Other macro-botanical evidence such as fat-smeared trimmed wooden sticks from Casuarina trees were also found in deeper and older deposits, indicating that other kinds of rituals using woody plants were also performed.”

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Journal

Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology

DOI

10.3389/fearc.2026.1871928 

Black Sea waters reshaped Eastern Mediterranean circulation 11,000 years ago

A new study led by the University of Barcelona reveals that freshwater exported from the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea triggered major environmental changes across the Eastern Mediterranean

Peer-Reviewed Publication

University of Barcelona

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A new study led by the University of Barcelona reveals that freshwater exported from the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea triggered major environmental changes across the Eastern Mediterranean.

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Credit: Communications Earth & Environment

An international team of researchers led by the University of Barcelona, in collaboration with the University of the Aegean and the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, has uncovered evidence showing that a massive outflow of low-salinity water from the Black Sea into the Aegean Sea during the Early Holocene (approximately 11,000-6,000 years ago) played a much more important role in shaping the Eastern Mediterranean than previously thought.

The study, published in the Nature Portfolio journal Communications Earth & Environment, demonstrates that freshwater exported from the Black Sea enhanced surface-water stratification in the Aegean Sea, suppressing the formation of deep waters and contributing to the development of the so-called Sapropel 1, a widespread organic-rich sediment layer deposited across the Eastern Mediterranean during the Early Holocene.

The findings extend beyond the Eastern Mediterranean’s past. By demonstrating how large freshwater inputs can disrupt deep-water formation and reorganize marine circulation, the study offers valuable insights into the links between climate, hydrology and ocean circulation during warm periods, helping scientists better understand the potential consequences of future climate change.

The Black Sea: More important than previously thought

For decades, scientists have largely attributed the formation of Sapropel 1 to increased freshwater input from North African rivers and enhanced precipitation over the northern Mediterranean region. These processes were thought to reduce deep-water formation and promote conditions favourable for the accumulation of organic-rich sediments on the seafloor. The new findings challenge this long-standing view by identifying the Black Sea as a major and previously underestimated driver of these environmental changes.

The results reveal that the combination of intensified meltwater input and increased precipitation across the vast Black Sea drainage basin during the Early Holocene strengthened the export of low-salinity water through the Dardanelles Strait. This freshwater pulse triggered a major reorganization of water masses in the northern and central Aegean Sea, increasing stratification of the water column and reducing the formation of deep waters.

“Our findings show that the formation of Sapropel 1 cannot be explained solely by changes in North African river discharge and regional precipitation,” explains Dimitris Evangelinos, lead author of the study and member of the Marine Geosciences Research Group (Gmar) at the UB’s Faculty of Earth Sciences.

“The Black Sea acted as a powerful source of freshwater that fundamentally altered ocean circulation in the Aegean Sea and played a decisive role in the environmental transformation of the Eastern Mediterranean”, explains Evangelinos, from the UB’s Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics.

More than 42,000 years of environmental history

​​​To reach these conclusions, the researchers analysed a marine sediment core recovered from the central Aegean Sea, close to key deep-water formation areas in the northern Aegean. The sediment archive preserves more than 42,000 years of environmental history. The study relied on a suite of advanced analyses carried out in state-of-the-art laboratories at the UB and its Science and Technology Centres (CCiTUB). By combining multiple innovative approaches, including grain-size analysis, X-ray fluorescence scanning, radiogenic isotopes and stable isotope geochemistry, the team reconstructed past changes in ocean circulation and distinguish the influence of Black Sea outflow from other climatic and hydrological processes.

This research was supported by the MORIA project (2023-2027), and received funding from the the State Research Agency of the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, the European Research Council Consolidator Grant and the NextGenerationEU programme, among other institutions.

 

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Journal

Communications Earth & Environment

DOI

10.1038/s43247-026-03730-6 

 

Tooth chemistry reveals the origins of St. Helena’s liberated Africans

Summary author: Walter Beckwith

Peer-Reviewed Publication

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

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The remains of Africans liberated from illegal slave ships and buried on the island of St. Helena are providing new insight into the population history of the transatlantic slave trade. By combining chemical signatures preserved in teeth with ancient DNA and historical records, a new study reconstructs the geographic origins and early-life movements of these individuals. The findings also inform local discussions about remembrance and repatriation. 

The transatlantic slave trade forcibly displaced more than 12.5 million Africans, yet the specific origins and journeys of many individuals remain poorly understood. After the British abolished the slave trade in 1807, the Royal Navy intercepted illegal slave ships and brought many of the liberated Africans to the island of St. Helena. However, nearly a third of those brought to the island died shortly after landing due to malnutrition and disease. Their remains were rediscovered during archaeological excavations in 2007–2008, prompting a community-led effort to better understand and commemorate their lives. 

To enrich the understanding of this population, Xueye Wang and colleagues analyzed strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) signatures from the teeth of 152 liberated Africans buried on St. Helena, combining these results with ancient DNA and historical records to better reconstruct their geographic origins. Because tooth enamel preserves chemical traces of the geological environment where a person grew up, these isotopes can provide clues about childhood homelands and migration histories.

 Wang et al. found that these individuals originated from a wide geographic area extending from coastal western Central Africa to regions much farther inland, including locations in modern-day Angola, Zimbabwe, and other parts of southern Africa. What’s more, the authors found direct evidence that some enslaved Africans may have been forcibly relocated years before embarking on transatlantic slave ships. While most individuals remained in the same region during childhood, others showed chemical signatures indicating movement, often toward the coastal slave-trading ports, including one case in which a child appears to have been moved between the ages of seven and nine. 

Wang et al. note that combining strontium isotope analysis with genetic and historical evidence can more precisely identify the likely homelands of people displaced by the transatlantic slave trade, providing valuable information for discussions about the repatriation of human remains. However, the findings also underscore the complexity of such decisions, as many individuals likely originated from widely separated regions. Rather than prescribing where remains should be reburied, the authors argue that scientific evidence can support informed, community-led decisions about commemoration, remembrance, and, where appropriate, repatriation. In a related Perspective, R. Alexander Bentley discusses the findings in greater detail.

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Journal

Science

DOI

10.1126/science.aeb3661 

Ancient Egyptian princesses born 4,000 years ago were skilled archers

 

Strong muscle attachments and healed fractures show that royal women could use the weapons they were buried with — but also that high status didn’t prevent hardship

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The dagger buried with Princess Ita. Photograph by Sameh Abdel Mohsen, Egyptian Museum photographer.

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Credit: Sameh Abdel Mohsen

For decades, scientists have disputed the meaning of the weapons found in the burial chambers of some ancient Egyptian princesses. Were they symbolic or practical tools? Now a reassessment of five royal women’s mummies from the Middle Kingdom has shown that some princesses buried with weapons could use them.  

“Members of the royal family, especially the women, were active participants in skilled, physically demanding activities such as archery and hunting,” said Dr Zeinab Hashesh, lead author of the article in Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology. “This conclusion is supported by the way their bones developed to sustain heavy muscle use, which corresponds directly to the weapons discovered in their tombs.” 

Rediscovered skeletons 

The researchers studied six royal mummies found at Dahshur, a funerary complex of pyramids and shaft tombs, in the 1890s. These mummies had been lost for years, and were rediscovered in the Egyptian Museum during a curation project in 2020.  

Four of the six were sisters, daughters of the pharaoh Amenemhat II, buried in matching underground chambers: Princess Ita next to Princess Khenmet, and Princess Itaweret alongside an anonymous woman provisionally identified as Princess Sathathormeryt. They were buried with items like bows and arrows which are traditionally associated with men; Princess Ita’s coffin contained a particularly beautiful dagger. Similar regalia was buried with the other two royals evaluated: Princess Noub-Hotep and King Hor. 

Although all six had been carefully mummified, the soft tissue had turned into powder, and some of the bones weren’t preserved. Unfortunately, this includes the princesses’ skulls, which were lost in the early 1900s. However, the remaining bones were in good condition, which allowed the archaeologists to estimate individuals’ age at death, height, and sex, as well as to uncover evidence of illnesses or injuries.  

“Princess Ita was a young woman aged between 28 and 34 with strong upper-body muscle attachments, suggesting she habitually used weapons like maces or daggers,” said Hashesh. “Princess Khenmet was a woman in her late 30s or 40s who showed signs of thinning bones, but had very robust ligament attachments. Princess Itaweret was a young woman aged between 20 and 34 who survived broken ribs and foot fractures; her skeleton shows she was a skilled archer.”  

The robust muscle attachments on the sisters’ bones indicate that they were highly physically active in ways that align with the use of the weapons in their burials. Similar evidence shows that Princess Noub-Hotep and King Hor were also archers.  

“We found pronounced development in the upper limbs of these individuals, which correlates to repetitive, high-intensity actions like pulling a bowstring or stabilizing a weapon, proving these activities were habitual throughout their lives,” explained Hashesh. “This directly explains the presence of bows, arrows, and maces in the women’s tombs; these were not just symbolic gifts but tools they actively used.” 

Injuries, like Princess Itaweret’s broken ribs — probably caused by a blow or a fall from a height — were common, while several individuals had infections and nutritional deficiencies. The sisters also shared rare spinal abnormalities, which indicates that their parents and wider family were closely related. 

“These injuries were most likely caused by accidents, falls, hard blows, or other impacts linked to an active lifestyle, whether through hunting, military training, or other demanding activities,” said Hashesh. “What is remarkable is that the injuries healed well, which suggests they had access to advanced medical care for their time.” 

Uncovering life stories 

However, the archaeologists point out that the loss of the princesses’ skulls limits their analyses. They also haven’t yet been able to carry out all the analyses they intend to – for example, stable isotope analysis, which could shed more light on possible nutritional deficiencies. 

“Our dream would be to go far beyond simply identifying the Dahshur royals,” said Hashesh. “We would try to tell their full life stories, their families, health, and even their political roles, with as much detail as possible. Beyond the science, we would preserve the remains, create 3D prints for teaching and virtual exhibitions, and display them alongside their jewelry, weapons, and funerary objects. All of this would be done with respect, ensuring the remains are presented ethically, just as they were originally buried. 

“Their objects and jewelry are truly fascinating, breathtaking in their craftsmanship. Yet, while archaeologists have long focused on preserving these treasures, the people themselves were often forgotten. Our study seeks to change that.” 

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Journal

Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology

DOI

10.3389/fearc.2026.1844402 

Large precolonial villages in the Brazilian Cerrado practiced maize-based polyculture

For decades, researchers have debated the subsistence strategies of precolonial societies of the Brazilian Cerrado (tropical savanna): were they hunter-gatherers or intensive maize farmers, and in either case, how did they organize themselves and interact with the land they inhabited? This week, a study published in Science Advances provides the first large-scale direct evidence to answer these questions. The evidence shows that while some populations relied on diverse plants, maize farming played a central role for others. But rather than practicing intensive monoculture, these communities developed diversified maize-based polyculture systems.

“For many years, the Cerrado debate focused on two extremes: highly mobile foraging or intensive sedentary farming,” says Eliane Chim, lead author of the study. “Instead, we found that some societies depended heavily on maize grown within diversified agricultural systems capable of sustaining large villages. This fundamentally changes our understanding of Indigenous food production and settlement in central Brazil.”

The researchers analyzed stable carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes from the teeth and bones of more than 100 individuals recovered from 37 archaeological sites across the Cerrado, Caatinga and Atlantic Forest biomes. Combined with new radiocarbon dates from human bone collagen, faunal isotope baselines, archaeobotanical evidence and palaeoecological records, the study reconstructs diets across the region during the Late Holocene with chronological precision.

The isotope evidence shows that people associated with the open-air villages obtained a substantial proportion of their diet from maize, whereas contemporaneous populations living in nearby rock shelters consumed much more diverse foods and showed little evidence of intensive maize use. Because these groups occupied similar environments, the differences cannot be explained by ecology alone. Instead, they reveal the coexistence of distinct cultural traditions and economic strategies across the region.

“These results challenge broader ideas about how agriculture developed in tropical South America,” says Prof. Patrick Roberts, director of the Department of Coevolution of Land Use and Urbanisation at the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology. “Our findings show that maize was part of resilient polycultural food-production systems that combined domesticated crops with wild plants and local ecological knowledge.”

The findings also place the Cerrado alongside the Amazon as a major centre for understanding Indigenous innovation before European colonization.

“The Cerrado has often been overshadowed by the Amazon in discussions of precolonial land use,” says Prof. André Strauss of the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at the University of São Paulo (Brazil). “Our findings demonstrate that it was also a centre of innovation, where different societies developed distinct ways of interacting with one of the world's most biodiverse tropical landscapes.”

Beyond archaeology, the research contributes to understanding the long history of human influence on one of the world's richest tropical savannas, highlighting sustainable land-use strategies that helped shape Cerrado landscapes for centuries. These findings contribute not only to refining our understanding of past food production but also contribute to contemporary discussions on biodiversity conservation, Indigenous knowledge, and the long-term management of tropical ecosystems.

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Journal

Science Advances

DOI

10.1126/sciadv.aef7066